The Paddy Fields and Water Sources of Sri Ksetra Pyu
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Hsu (NP News) - Nov 7
The wide plain of Nawin to the north of the ancient city of Sri Ksetra can be regarded as the city’s outer paddy field area. It is a vast and fertile land, ideal for cultivation. The Pyu people would not have had much difficulty obtaining water here, as both the Lothok Creek and the Nawin Creek were abundant sources of water — and both connected to the great Ayeyarwady River.
For this reason, the extensive Nawin plain of Sri Ksetra, stretching as far north as the region of Wethtee Lake, could be covered with vast paddy fields. Ancient Pyu villages can still be found in the area today. When studying the agricultural zones of Sri Ksetra, it is found that paddy cultivation was carried out even within the eight-mile radius of the inner city. However, those inner farmlands, being close to the royal palace, were likely under stricter supervision and less independent compared to the outer paddy fields of the Nawin plain. The types of rice grown might also have differed.
In its early period, Sri Ksetra’s city area was smaller than what we see in its later stages. Located in the southernmost part of Myanmar’s tropical zone, Sri Ksetra’s founders may have chosen not to build the city directly beside the Ayeyarwady River for both defensive and strategic reasons. Keeping a distance of about seven miles from the river was probably a deliberate military decision. At that time, river routes were major avenues of approach for enemies, while the eastern and southern sides — covered by the forests, hills, wild animals, and diseases of the Bago Yoma range — naturally served as protective barriers, making it difficult for outsiders to approach the city easily.
Geologically, about two-thirds of the land around Sri Ksetra was suitable for cultivation, while the remaining one-third appears to have been used for hillside farming. The city’s farmland mostly extended to the southern outskirts. As one moves south from the city wall and across the foothills, the terrain gradually changes, revealing more fertile lands suitable for farming. The farther south one goes, the higher the terrain rises, and in these upland regions, hillside cultivation appears to have been practiced.
The population of Sri Ksetra must have been well-supported by its farmlands — perhaps even with surplus rice production. Even today, the soil in this region remains fertile. However, due to its location in the tropical zone, irrigation would have been crucial for successful agriculture. Therefore, the Pyu engineers of Sri Ksetra must have developed sophisticated systems for water storage, distribution, and management.
Sri Ksetra was the largest, most religiously vibrant, and most enduring of all Pyu cities. It was also the most successful in terms of social organization — maintaining not only economic but also cultural relations with regions across Myanmar and even foreign countries.
When examining the city’s water management for agriculture, researchers find that the system became increasingly complex as the city expanded over time. The successive phases of cultivation and irrigation development over two millennia have significantly transformed the region’s land cover. Aerial photographs from about 30 years ago, compared with current satellite imagery, reveal remarkable changes.
Archaeological excavations show multiple overlapping soil layers, indicating repeated construction and modification phases — both vertically and horizontally — over centuries. To fully understand the evolution of Sri Ksetra’s water management, it is essential to analyze these stratified layers carefully and correlate them with the surviving surface evidence. Researchers have documented and sampled soil layers at various depths to reconstruct this ancient hydraulic history.
The Pyu demonstrated great foresight in choosing the location of Sri Ksetra. The city was built along the natural slope descending from the southern and southwestern highlands (about 600 feet above sea level) northward to the Nawin plain, covering a distance of 7–10 miles. The city wall circumference measures over eight miles, corresponding to what is believed to be the last and largest Pyu city in history.
Later archaeological studies suggest that the earliest stage of Sri Ksetra was smaller, supported by carbon dating results that confirm earlier settlement phases. It is also believed that Sri Ksetra’s initial water management system resembled that of the ancient city of Beikthano. Just as Beikthano had a large lake on its western side, satellite (RS-Remote Sensing) studies reveal that early Sri Ksetra also had a massive lake on its eastern side.
This idea is further supported by historian Janice Stargardt, who included corresponding maps in her book The Ancient Pyu of Burma. Thus, it appears that in its early phase, Sri Ksetra was established around a large reservoir — likely filled by rainwater and runoff from nearby hills. These lakes not only supported agriculture but also strengthened the city’s defenses, making the hilly terrain an ideal location for settlement.
According to Carbon-14 tests and excavation data, Sri Ksetra expanded and developed more advanced water management systems around the late 5th century AD. The earliest city walls were discovered by Dr. Bob Hudson, an Australian archaeologist, during his 2005–2006 excavations. As a specialist in Geographic Information System (GIS) and RS technologies, he studied the city’s water systems from both ground and aerial perspectives.
He discovered that water from the southern mountain range was collected in a three-tiered reservoir system locally known as “Kan Thone Sin” (Three Lakes). These reservoirs not only stored water but also reduced the speed of mountain runoff to prevent flooding of the city below. Around the southern outer wall, remains of double rectangular embankments were found, enclosing four circular ponds known locally as Pyu Taik (Pyu Tanks). Interestingly, each Pyu Tank was surrounded by trenches capable of channeling water — showing deliberate engineering. The Pyu likely directed the mountain water through these trenches.
Near the southern city wall, a smaller square-shaped fortified area known as Wissathano Citylet was also found, built in the same brick-wall style and surrounded by a moat — another evidence of defensive and water-management integration.
The main point of water entry into the city was likely the Kyarkan area, a low-lying region south of the triple city walls. Dr. Hudson proposed that Kyarkan served as the main diversion point for distributing water into the city — possibly equipped with gates or sluices. Even today, large ponds remain there and are still used by local farmers.
Another site, Yintike Field, shows evidence of ancient embankments forming circular structures known as Elephant Moats. The nearby shrine dedicated to the Utein-nan Spirit, protector of elephant trainers, supports this interpretation.
Farther east, in the Shan Plain, an ancient embanked lake remains visible, with water inlets still traceable today. The Shan Plain lake is about three times larger than Yintike Field, and a similar reservoir called Kyo Kyar Inn exists on the western side of the city. Between Shan Plain and Yintike Field lies a canal near Inn Mulao Pagoda, with ancient stupas like Su Pot Hill Pagoda and Paya Taw Mu Pagoda nearby — suggesting that these religious monuments were built long after the irrigation system had fallen out of use.
The eastern water inflow route of Sri Ksetra also shows clear traces. It began from the outer triple city walls and entered near what is now Kula Kan Village. The ancient irrigation channels are still visible near Tharyarwaddy Gate and Khinba Hill.
Evidence suggests that the large eastern lake gradually silted up around the 5th century AD — during the city’s expansion phase. When the lake eventually disappeared, the land was converted to farmland, and new city walls were built farther east. Archaeological surveys show no significant ancient structures there except for a long mound known as Myaw Taw Oo Stupa, marking the edge of the old lake.
In summary, the Pyu of Sri Ksetra skillfully combined agricultural, defensive, and hydraulic engineering. Their extensive irrigation networks — with reservoirs, canals, embankments, and diversion points — not only sustained large-scale rice cultivation but also shaped the city’s prosperity and longevity.
Reference to
LivingMyanmarMedia
Credit: U Kyaw Myo Win (Archaeology)